Adlerian Group Therapy Essay

According to Glanz and Hayes (1967) Group Counseling and group terapy are almost contradictory concepts to he individual not familiar with the detailed practices present and groups, counceling, and therapy. multiple counseling, group guidance, and the lmost interchangeble use of counseling and psychotherapy have added to the uncertainty of the dimensions and true nature of these new concepts. Adlerian in Group Counseling According to Corey (202) Adler was a politically and socially oriented psychiatrist who showed great concern for the common person. Indeed, many of his early clients were working-class people who struggled to make a living, raise and educate their children, and make a difference in society. Part of Adler’s mission was to bring psychological understanding to the general population and to translate psychological concepts into practical methods for helping a varied population meet the challenges of everyday life. Alfred Adler made signifi cant contributions to contemporary therapeutic practice. Adler believed in the social nature of human beings, and he was interested in working with clients in a group context. He established more than 30 child guidance clinics in which he pioneered live demonstrations by interviewing children, adults, teachers, and parents in front of community groups. He was the fi rst psychiatrist to use group methods in a systematic way in child guidance centers in the 1920s in Vienna. To fully appreciate the development of the practice of Adlerian psychology, one must recognize the contributions of Rudolf Dreikurs, who was largely responsible for extending and popularizing Adler’s work and transplanting Adler’s ideas to the United States. He did a great deal to translate Adlerian principles into the practice of group psychotherapy, and he used group psychotherapy in his private practice for more than 40 years (see Dreikurs, 1960, 1967, 1997). Dreikurs developed and refi ned Adler’s concepts into a clear-cut, teachable system with practical applications for family life, education, preventive mental health, and, especially, group psychotherapy (Terne r & Pew, 1978). Dreikurs was a key fi gure in developing the Adlerian family education centers in the United States. Work with children and their parents in a group setting paved the way for Dreikurs’s pioneering group psychotherapy.It is believed that Dreikurs was the fi rst person to use group therapy in a private practice. Adlerian interventions have been widely applied to diverse client populations of all ages in many different settings. Adlerian group therapy is an integration of key concepts of Adlerian psychology with socially constructed, systemic, and brief approaches based on the holistic model developed by Dreikurs (Sonstegard & Bitter, 2004). Objectives of Adlerian Group Therapy  ·Establishing and maintaining an emphatic relationship between clients and counselor that is based on mutual trust and respect and in which the client feels understood and accepted by the group.  ·Providing a therapeutic climate in which clients can come to understand their basics beliefs and feelings about themselves and discover why those beliefs are faulty.  ·helping clients develop insight into their mistaken goals and self-defeating behaviors through a process of confrontatio and interpretation.  ·assisting clients in discovering alternatives and encouraging them to make choices that is, put insights into action.  ·Group provides a mirror of person’s behavior.  ·Group members both recieve and give help. Techniques THE FAMILY CONSTELLATION Adler considered the family of origin as having a central impact on an individual’s personality. Adler suggested that it was through the family constellation that each person forms his or her unique view of self, others, and life. Factors such as cultural and familial values, gender-role expectations, and the nature of interpersonal relationships are all infl uenced by a child’s observation of the interactional patterns within the family. Adlerian assessment relies heavily on an exploration of the client’s family constellation, including the client’s evaluation of conditions that prevailed in the family when the person was a young child (family atmosphere), birth order, parental relationship and family values, and extended family and culture. EARLY RECOLLECTIONS As you will recall, another assessment procedure used by Adlerians is to ask the client to provide his or her earliest memories, including the age of the person at the time of the remembered events and the feelings or reactions associated with the recollections. Early recollections are one-time occurrences pictured by the client in clear detail. Adler reasoned that out of the millions of early memories we might have we select those special memories that project the essential convictions and even the basic mistakes of our lives. Early recollections are a series of small mysteries that can be woven together and provide a tapestry that leads to an understanding of how we view ourselves, how we see the world, what our life goals are, what motivates us, what we value and believe in, and what we anticipate for our future (Clark, 2002; Mosak & Di Pietro, 2006). BIRTH OEDER AND SIBLING RELATIONSHIP The Adlerian approach is unique in giving special attention to the relationships between siblings and the psychological birth position in one’s family. Adler identified five psychological positions, or vantage points, from which children tend to view life: oldest, second of only two, middle, youngest, and only. Stages of the Alerian Group Therapy STAGE 1: ESTABLISHING AND MAINTAININGCOHESIVE RELATIONSHIPS WITH MEMBERS In the initial stage the emphasis is on establishing a good therapeutic relationship based on cooperation, collaboration, egalitarianism, and mutual respect. By attending to the relationship from the first session, counselors are laying a foundation for cohesive ness and connection. Adlerians hold that the successful outcomes of the other group stages are based on establishing and maintaining a strong therapeutic relationship at the initial stage of counseling (Watts & Eckstein, 2009). Group participants are encouraged to be active in the process because they are responsible for their own participation in the group. The group situation provides sample opportunity to work on trust issues and to strengthen the relationship between member and leader. Also, by witnessing positive changes in peers, participants can see how well the group works. STAGE 2: ANALYSIS AND ASSESSMENT (EXPLORING THE INDIVIDUAL’S DYNAMICS) The aim of the second stage is twofold: understanding one’s lifestyle and seeing how it is affecting one’s current functioning in all the tasks of life (Mosak & Maniacci, 2011). During this assessment stage, emphasis is on the individual in his or her social and cultural context. Adlerians do not try to fi t clients into a preconceived model; rather, they allow salient cultural identity concepts to emerge and attend to a clients’ personal meaning of culture (Carlson & Englar-Carlson, 2008). The leader may begin by exploring how the participants are functioning at work and in social situations and how they feel about themselves and their gender-role identities. STAGE 3: AWARENESS AND INSIGHT Whereas the classical analytic position is that personality cannot change unless there is insight, the Adlerian view is that insight is a special form of awareness that facilitates a meaningful understanding within the counseling relationship and acts as a foundation for change. Yet this awareness is not, in and of itself, enough to bring about signifi cant change. It is a means to an end, not an end in itself. According to Carlson and Englar-Carlson (2008), the Adlerian approach is both insight oriented and action oriented. Although insight into our problems can be useful, it is essential that this awareness leads to constructive movement toward desired goals. It is to be noted that people can make abrupt and signifi cant changes without much insight. STAGE 4: REORIENTATION AND REEDUCATION The end product of the group process is reorientation and reeducation. The reorientation stage consists of both the group leaders and the members working together to challenge erroneous beliefs about self, life, and others. The emphasis is on considering alternative beliefs, behaviors, and attitudes. During this stage, members put insight into action, making new choices that are more consistent with their desired goals (Carlson & Englar-Carlson, 2008). There is a change in members’ attitudes toward their current life situation and the problems they need to solve. This reorientation is an educational experience. Adlerian groups are characterized by an attempt to reorient faulty living patterns and teach a better understanding of the principles that result in cooperative interaction (Sonstegard & Bitter, 2004). One of the aims is teaching participants how to become more effective in dealing with the tasks of life. Another aim is challenging and encouraging clients to take risks and make changes. References: Corey, G. (2012), Theories And Practice of Group Couneling Eight edition. United States, 2008 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning. Corey, G. (2009), Theories And Practice of Counseling and Psychoterapy. United States, 2005 Thomson Brooks/Cole.z

Feminism and the Importance of Identity Politics Essay

â€Å"To be feminist in any authentic sense of the term is to want for all people, female and male, liberation from sexist role patterns, domination, and oppression†. Bell Hooks succinctly sums up what it means to be a feminist, and yet when we look to the feminist movement and feminist theorizing today, we see a disturbingly different picture. In a social movement founded on equality for all human beings, the patriarchy and its’ power structures have still made a negative impact in the way this movement is shaped and perpetuated, especially in terms of intersectionality and identity politics. Whose voices are heard? What issues are prioritized? Who is considered a â€Å"true† feminist? When we ask how and why issues of identity and intersectionality are relevant to feminist theorizing, the answer is simple. When the true and complex identities of individuals and social groups are ignored, what forms is a limiting and narrow view inherently oppositional to the mo vement’s foundation and goals. Essentially, ignoring these issues means perpetuating the oppression the movement itself is trying to fight. What follows is a brief analysis on three reasons why feminists should care about identity and individuals with complex identities: 1) addressing oppressions in a movement dedicated to eliminating all oppression, 2) identifying the negative consequences of elision of difference, and 3) recognizing the real importance of intersectionality in terms of survival in the real world, as opposed to simply theorizing in academics. While the feminist movement is explicitly dedicated to fighting racism and any other types of â€Å"isms†, we see that typically marginalized groups continue to be marginalized within the movement. These groups are well aware of this oppression, yet how often their voices are heard or even considered are slim to none. In a statement from Black feminists part of The Combahee River Collective, it is explained that there was â€Å"the need to develop a p olitics that was anti-racist, unlike those of White women, and anti-sexist, unlike those of Black and white men† (CRC: 59). As members of two oppressed groups in society, Black women face the highest obstacles in their pursuit of complete liberation, especially because of the dominant narrative and voices that have typically commandeered the political movement. As Kimberle Crenshaw purports, â€Å"the need to split one’s political energies between two  sometimes opposing groups is a dimension of intersectional disempowerment that men of color and white women seldom confront† (Crenshaw: 85). The intersectional experience of White women have typically dominated the women’s movement as White women have had more accessibility and opportunity to speak out/theorize academically as opposed to Black women. Thus, the experiences of Black women – which are distinguishably different from the White woman’s – are essentially absent from the discussion, an issue that is highly problematic as it points to racism and oppression within a social justice movement (not to mention a limited perspective). Feminist theorists and activists must make sure to account for intersectional experiences in order to avoid this hypocrisy. Specifically, White feminists and activists must understand that their role as genuine activists in the movement mandates a need to be educated and literate in Black history and culture, something that the Combahee River Collective has explicitly called for. As they argue, â€Å"eliminating racism in the white women’s movement is by definition work for white women to do, but we will continue to speak to and demand accountability on this issue† (CRC: 63). Being a conscientious and fully aware member of this movement involves more than addressing intersectionality and racism within the movement. Feminist theorists need to identify the importance of 1) making the personal political, and subsequently 2) avoiding the harmful and common elision of differences between and within groups. These two ideas cannot happen or be fully achieved without the other. The first step requires a great deal of honesty and self-reflection, which may come with some discomfort and pain, a reason that many individuals may avoid this introspection. As Mari Matsuda argues in her article, â€Å"by claiming, exploring, and questioning my own identity in an explicit way, I seek truth, and I seek to encourage my students to do the same† (Matsuda: 75). Feminist theorists must consider the value of truth and justice over any type of discomfort or personal guilt that blocks the path towards complete liberation for all. Just as honesty is crucial in terms of oppression within the movement, it is also key in recognizing privilege. Matsuda supports this idea: â€Å"I do not know of any other politics of social change that works other than the one that asks people to explore deeply their own location on the axes of power† (Matsuda:  76). Once one has a certain amount of self-awareness and recognizes their privilege, only then can they be able to avoid ignoring intragroup differences. Ergo, the White woman cannot fully understand the complexity & struggle of a Black woman’s experience in the movement if she does not understand her own privilege over the Black woman within the same movement. While intersectionality is quite real in the day-to-day lives of women, feminist theory has typically categorized identity as a limiting either/or dichotomy between â€Å"woman† or â€Å"person of color†, leaving women of color marginalized. In terms of violence against women, Crenshaw argues that this elision of difference is harmful because it is perpetuating the violence by not fully understanding how multiple dimensions of woman’s identity contribute to her experience. For example, in our society ruled by a racist/patriarchal structure and system, battered women of color face poverty and racially discriminatory employment/housing, thus have a much harder time finding shelter and support. The elision of difference can also be harmful because it poses as a threat to solidarity – ignoring intragroup differences simply continue to raise tension between these sub groups and ultimately harms the progress of the movement, which requires everyone to stand with one another. Lastly, feminist theorists must recognize the importance of intersectionality and identity as transcendent issues that go beyond simply theorizing and play a very real role in the lives of women every day. As Crenshaw argues, â€Å"The struggle over incorporating these differences is not a petty or superficial conflict about who gets to sit at the head of the table. In the context of violence, it is sometimes a deadly serious matter of who will survive and who will not† (Crensaw: 89). The commonly shared assumption that battering is a minority problem, for example, exemplifies the issues with ignoring intersectionality/identity. Battering is a human problem, and if a Latina woman cannot get shelter from a husband threatening to kill her multiple times because she can’t prove she is English-proficient, then something is very wrong. These exclusionary policies are inherently oppositional to the goal of human liberation and the women’s movement, and if feminist theorists do not address this, then not only will real change remain absent, but we will continue to lose the lives  of women around the world. These are human beings that deserve to live and exercise their rights; that deserve to celebrate their multi-dimensional identity, instead of suffer from it because feminist theory and societal structure are ignoring them. Feminist theorists, we need you to be honest with yourselves and your privilege. We need you to address the complexity and beauty of every individual, help use these differences to resist against oppression instead of perpetuate it, and ultimately harness and use the full power of group solidarity to truly and genuinely fight for human liberation.

Biofilms: The Social Life of Microorganisms

Microorganisms typically do not live as single cells in pure cultures. The vast majority lives in mixed populations, organized in aggregates which are termed â€Å"biofilms†. This includes films at interfaces, flocks (floating films), sludge’s and microbial mats. They all have emergent properties in common that only can be developed in the aggregated form: they generate a matrix of extracellular polymeric substances which keeps them together, allows for the development of stable, synergistic micro consortia and for intense cell-cell communication. The matrix is activated by extracellular enzymes which are retained in it, representing an external digestion system. This system also sequesters nutrients from the environment and serves as ultimate recycling yard and nutrient source. Horizontal gene exchange is facilitated with a vast gene pool present. In biofilms, organisms differentiate rapidly, forming phenotypically different subpopulations, a mechanism which contributes to ecological fitness. Resistance to biocides is enhanced by a range of mechanisms. On the other hand, strong competition prevails in which attacking and defence strategies evolved, including the formation of antibiotics and bacteriocins. Grazing organisms can limit biofilm growth but also stimulate ecological fitness. Even â€Å"programmed cell death† is observed, leading to a more porous matrix which allows for better access of nutrients for organisms in the depth of the matrix. Under stress conditions, cells can transform into a viable but not cultivable (VBNC) state which is of relevance for public hygiene because they cannot be detected with the methods designed for their determination but can resuscitate. Biofilms represent the oldest, most abundant and successful form of life on Earth, displaying aspects of multicellularity. Life evolved from biofilms and they are involved in the biogeochemical cycles of all major elements. In biofilms, photosynthesis was developed biofilms they are responsible for the self-purification mechanisms of soils, sediments and water. However, biofilms can occur in the wrong place and time, causing bio fouling, bio corrosion and bio deterioration, leading to substantial economic loss and supporting an entire industry dedicated to cleaning and disinfection. In medicine, they are cause of persistent infections and are related to many diseases. In general, biofilms are of fundamental but mostly unaccounted relevance for our life.

Availability of Drinking Water

INTRODUCTION Drinking water or potable water is water of sufficiently high quality that it can be consumed or used without risk of immediate or long term harm. In most developed countries, the water supplied to households, commerce and industry is all of drinking water standard, even though only a very small proportion is actually consumed or used in food preparation. Clean drinking water has yet to be completely recognized as a basic human right. While water plays a vital role in every aspect of life, some do not realize the gravity of the shrinking clean water sources. When unclean water is consumed, it can cause serious illnesses, sometimes leading to death. According to statistics provided by the World Health Organization (WHO), about 1. 1 billion of the world's 6 billion people do not have access to clean drinking water sources. Drinking Water is essential to the survival of all organisms,water has always been an important and life-sustaining drink to humans. Excluding fat, water composes approximately 70% of the human body by mass. It is a crucial component of metabolic processes and serves as a solvent for many bodily solutes. Health authorities have historically suggested at least eight glasses, eight fluid ounces each (168 ml), of water per day (64 fluid ounces, or 1. 89 litres),and the British Dietetic Association recommends 1. 8 litres. The United States Environmental Protection Agency has determined that the average adult actually ingests 2. 0 litres per day. 70% of the Earth's surface is covered by water. Water is available almost everywhere if proper methods are used to get it. Sources where water may be obtained include: ground sources such as groundwater, hyporheic zones and aquifers. precipitation which includes rain, hail, snow, fog, etc. urface water such as rivers, streams, glaciers biological sources such as plants. the sea through desalination Access to safe water can be measured by the number of people who have a reasonable means of getting sufficient water that is safe for drinking. Availability of safe drinking water is an indicator of the health of a country. A developed country will be more efficient in collecting, cleaning and distributing water to consumers. It is a sad fact but is true that ninety percent of urban sewage in the developing world is discharged into rivers and other water bodies. In the developing world, millions of residents lack a source of safe drinking water near their homes. People get safe drinking water from various sources such as household connection, borehole, protected dug well, public standpipe etc. But the Question that arises is : † Does everyone has safe drinking water available? † Availability of drinking water scenario in India is very Bad as compared to other countries like USA, England, China etc. as can be observed from the underlying table: Countries Amount Finland:100% Australia:100% Netherlands:100% Norway:100% Sweden:100% Switzerland:100% United Kingdom:100% United States:100% Russia:99% Bangladesh:97% Albania:97% Egypt:97% Pakistan:90% Nepal:88% Brazil:87% South Africa:86% India:84% A detailed analysis can be seen in the graph shown : Paste this map over here.. http://www. mapsofworld. com/thematic-maps/safe-drinking-water. htm The availability of Drinking Water is hampered and altered depending upon various factors such as, Drinking Water pollution, Wastage, Demand supply ratios, Treatment methods etc. INDIAN STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS FOR DRINKING WATER Indian Standards has set various limits over different chemical and physical properties of Water, in order to label it as Safe and Drinking Water, a sample of water, lying in the permissible range set as per IS, is safe for drinking. Following are the IS Specifications for Drinking Water : S. NO. Parameter Requirement desirable Limit Remarks 1. Color 5 May be extended up to 50 if toxic substances are suspected 2. Turbidity 10 May be relaxed up to 25 in the absence of alternate 3. pH 6. 5 to 8. 5 May be relaxed up to 9. 2 in the absence of alternate 4. Total hardness 300 May be extended up to 600 5. Calcium as Ca 75 May be extended up to 200 . Magnesium as Mg 30 May be extended up to 100 7. Copper as Cu 0. 05 May be relaxed up to 1. 5 8. Iron 0. 3 May be extended up to1 9. Manganese 0. 1 May be extended up to0. 5 10. Chlorides 250 May be extended up to1000 11. Sulphates 150 May be extended up to 400 12. Nitrates 45 No relaxation 13. Fluoride 0. 6 to 1. 2 If the limit is below 0. 6, wa ter should Be rejected, Max. Limit is extended to 1. 5 14. Phenols 0. 001 May be relaxed up to 0. 002 15. Mercury 0. 001 No relaxation 16. Cadmium 0. 01 No relaxation 17. Selenium 0. 01 No relaxation 18. Arsenic 0. 05 No relaxation 19. Cyanide 0. 05 No relaxation 20. Lead 0. 1 No relaxation 21. Zinc 5. 0 May be relaxed up to 10. 0 22. Anionic detergents (MBAS) 0. 2 May be relaxed up to 1 23. Chromium 0. 05 No relaxation 24. Poly nuclear aromatic Hydrocarbons — — 25. Mineral oil 0. 01 May be relaxed up to 0. 03 26. Residual free chlorine 0. 2 Applicable only when water is chlorinated 27. Pesticides Absent — 28. Radioactive — — REQUIREMENT V/s. AVAILABILITY Water. If you've got it, you probably take it for granted. But a quick scan of the globe — and a chat with the tiny group of researchers who are obsessed by fresh water — both indicate that water shortages are looming. And they aren't necessarily in the future, either. You don't miss your water, an old blues sage wisely said, 'til your well runs dry. Down here on planet Earth, the well is starting to run dry. We've seen projections that three billion people — half of today's population — will be short of water in 2025. The Earth has a finite supply of fresh water, stored in aquifers, surface waters and the atmosphere. Sometimes oceans are mistaken for available water, but the amount of energy needed to convert saline water to potable water is prohibitive today, explaining why only a very small fraction of the world's water supply derives from desalination. The Millennium Development Goal of halving the proportion of people without access to safe drinking water between 1990 and 2015 is a target we are aiming for. Although some countries still face enormous challenges. Rural communities are the furthest from meeting the 2015 MDGs drinking water target. Globally only 27% of the rural population has water piped directly to their home and 24% rely on unimproved sources. Of the 884 million people without access to an improved water source, 746 million people (84%) live in rural areas. Sub-Saharan Africa has made the least progress in improved water sources since 1990, improving only 9% to 2006. In contrast, the Eastern Asian region saw a dramatic drop from 45% to 9% reliance on unimproved water in the same time period. The shortage of water in our country is slowly affecting the lives of people as well as the environment around them. Some of the major issues that need urgent attention are: †¢ As a result of excessive extraction of ground water to meet agriculture, industrial and domestic demands, drinking water is not available during the ritical summer months in many parts of the country. †¢ About 10 per cent of the rural and urban population does not have access to regular safe drinking water and many more are threatened. Most of them depend on unsafe water sources to meet their daily needs. Moreover, water shortages in cities and villages have led to large volumes of water being collected and transported over great distances by tankers and pipelines. †¢ Chemical contaminants namely fluoride, arsenic and selenium pose a very serious health hazard in the country. It is estimated that about 70 million people in 20 states are at risk due to excess fluoride and around 10 million people are at risk due to excess arsenic in ground water. Apart from this, increase in the concentration of chloride, TDS, nitrate, iron in ground water is of great concern for a sustainable drinking water programme. All these need to be tackled holistically. With over extraction of groundwater the concentration of chemicals is increasing regularly. †¢ Ingress of seawater into coastal aquifers as a result of over-extraction of ground water has made water supplies more saline, unsuitable for drinking and irrigation. Pollution of ground and surface waters from agrochemicals (fertilizers and pesticides) and from industry poses a major environmental health hazard, with potentially significant costs to the country. The World Bank has estimated that the total cost of environmental, damage in India amounts to US$9. 7 billion annually, or 4. 5 per cent of the gross domestic product. Of this, 59 per cent results from the health impacts of water pollution (World Bank 1995). DRINKING WATER POLLUTION Availability of drinking water is largely affected by its pollution, which has been leading and will lead to a decrease in its availability in the coming future. Drinking water pollution is a bigger problem than most people realize. While drinking water filters and bottled water has become a staple in our society, most consumers still use unfiltered drinking water for cooking, filling pet water bowls and bottles, and for mixing powdered drink mixes. Drinking water pollution is a big enough problem within our country to warrant the same vigilance as we give other health hazards. There are numerous sources that pile up into serious contamination potential for all drinking water. Whether your water is coming from a well on your property or if you are using â€Å"filtered† city water sources, the chances that you have a problem with drinking water pollution is quite high. Groundwater testing has shown that in any given area throughout the country as many as 200 variable contaminants have been detected. Long term exposure can create numerous health problems, including lead poisoning. While not every single contaminant is destined to cause a serious health problem or even any health problem at all, you can not count on your local contaminants to be harmless. Agriculture practices are one of the largest sources of groundwater contaminants. The chemical used in controlling bugs and other chemically based treatments run directly into the groundwater supply. Pesticides and poisonous agricultural raw waste can contaminate more than 40% of the surrounding groundwater. Ingress of seawater into coastal aquifers as a result of over-extraction of ground water has made water supplies more saline, unsuitable for drinking and irrigation. Pollution of ground and surface waters from agrochemicals (fertilizers and pesticides) and from industry poses a major environmental health hazard, with potentially significant costs to the country. Another major contributor to drinking water pollution is urban run off. Another human based contribution that needs to be controlled at the source in order to save our drinking water supply. When rain washes urban trash, chemicals, and pollutants from the structures and roadways of populated areas, there is no way for the water to filter itself on its way to the groundwater. Everything from basic trash, cigarette butts, antifreeze, motor oil, gasoline, pesticides, and other daily use products are all contributing factors in groundwater contamination caused by urban run off. Practicing safer disposal practices of automobile chemicals, putting together trash clean up projects, and using environmentally safe household products can help cut down on urban run off pollutants. Lead is one of the most concerning urban run off pollutants, as lead poisoning can cause learning problems, chronic emotional and health issues, and is non-reversible. Drinking lead contaminated water is a serious health problem. Water Treatment Water treatment is the process of removing undesirable chemicals, materials, and biological contaminants from raw water. The goal is to produce water fit for a specific purpose. Most water is purified for human consumption (drinking water) but water purification may also be designed for a variety of other purposes, including meeting the requirements of medical, pharmacology, chemical and industrial applications. It is important to take measures to make available water of desirable quality at the consumer end. That leads to protection of the treated water during conveyance and distribution after treatment. It is common practice to have residual disinfectants in the treated water in order to kill any bacteriological contamination after water treatment. Processes for treatment of drinking water: The combination of following processes is used for municipal drinking water treatment worldwide: Pre-treatment: It consists or removal of large debris such as sticks, leaves, trash and other large particles which may interfere with subsequent purification steps. It also includes treatment of water with soda-ash to remove hardness or chlorine to minimize the growth of fouling organisms on the pipe-work and tanks. pH adjustment: Distilled water has a pH of 7. If the water is acidic, lime, soda ash, or sodium hydroxide is added to raise the pH. Acid (HCl or H2SO4) may be added to basic waters in some circumstances to lower the pH. Making the water slightly basic ensures that coagulation and flocculation processes work effectively and also helps to minimize the risk of lead being dissolved from lead pipes and lead solder in pipe fittings. Flocculation: It is a process which removes any turbidity or color so that the water is clear and colorless and is done by causing a precipitate to form in the water which can be removed using simple physical methods. Coagulants / flocculating agents that may be used include: Iron (III) hydroxide Aluminium hydroxide PolyDADMAC Sedimentation: Water exiting the flocculation basin may enter the sedimentation basin, also called a settling basin. The dimensions of the tank are chosen such that it can lead to maximum particles settling down. As particles settle to the bottom of the basin, a layer of sludge is formed on the floor of the tank. This layer of sludge must be removed and treated accordingly. Filtration: After separating most floc, the water is filtered as the final step to remove remaining suspended particles and unsettled floc. Different types of filters are: Rapid sand filters Slow sand filters Lava filters Disinfection: It is accomplished both by filtering out harmful microbes and also by adding disinfectant chemicals in the last step in purifying drinking water. Different types of disinfections are: Chlorine disinfection Chlorine Dioxide Disinfection Ozone disinfection Ultraviolet disinfection Hydrogen peroxide disinfection Various portable methods of disinfection Solar water disinfection Biological processes are also employed in the treatment of wastewater and these processes may include, for example, aerated lagoons, activated sludge etc. There is no unique solution (selection of processes) for any type of water. Also, it is difficult to standardize the solution in the form of processes for water from different sources. Selection of any of the following methods depends on the scale of the plant and quality of the water. Wastage/Conservation of Water Water is needed for our survival. It is the most important resource for us. So its high time for us to realize this and start conserving water. So we need awareness among people so that each individual puts effort at their level and contribute to the larger cause on the whole. Saving the earth from such a crisis would not be possible without the efforts of each individual. People can start at home by not letting their taps open and by not spilling the drinking water. People should not let their taps run when its not needed. It is important for them to realize that millions of people don't even get access to drinking water. Government needs to implement stricter laws to avoid wastage of water during distribution. Higher fines can be imposed on people who waste water and higher incentives can be given to those conserving water. Recycled water can be used for gardening, washing etc. Due to the current water crisis. Only during times of shortage, do we take emergency measures; saving water should be followed even when there is surplus. If not for the current water shortage, not many would have taken notice of such occasions. During the time when we used to get good rainfall, we never conserved water. A large city needs billions of litres of drinking water every day to service the needs. We will have to make alternate water sources like rainwater harvesting, dig wells and bore wells for our use. The civic corporation should take the initiative to check the broken water pipelines. Such networks rupture occasionally which result in wastage of water every day and should repair it. There should be a specific limit for using water, every society should strictly abide by it should be enforced by society’s office bearers. Due to leakage to existing drinking water pipelines, every day millions of litres of drinking water is going waste. If wastage is stopped the drinking water supply will improve to some extent. The supply of drinking water is not increasing according to demand. As a result, drinking water scarcity is arising. Urban Water Supply Even though the rate of urbanisation in India is among the lowest in the world, the nation has more than 250 million city-dwellers. Experts predict that this number will rise even further, and by 2020, about 50 per cent of India's population will be living in cities. This is going to put further pressure on the already strained centralised water supply systems of urban areas. The urban water supply and sanitation sector in the country is suffering from inadequate levels of service, an increasing demand-supply gap, poor sanitary conditions and deteriorating financial and technical performance. According to Central Public Health Engineering Organisation (CPHEEO) estimates, as on 31 March 2000, 88 per cent of urban population has access to a potable water supply. But this supply is highly erratic and unreliable. Transmission and distribution networks are old and poorly maintained, and generally of a poor quality. Consequently physical losses are typically high, ranging from 25 to over 50 per cent. Low pressures and intermittent supplies allow back siphoning, which results in contamination of water in the distribution network. Water is typically available for only 2-8 hours a day in most Indian cities. The situation is even worse in summer when water is available only for a few minutes, sometimes not at all. A Stress Situation According to a World Bank study, of the 27 Asian cities with populations of over 1,000,000, Chennai and Delhi are ranked as the worst performing metropolitan cities in terms of hours of water availability per day, while Mumbai is ranked as second worst performer and Calcutta fourth worst (Source: Background Paper – International Conference on New Perspectives on Water for Urban & Rural India – 18-19 September, 2001, New Delhi. ) In most cities, centralised water supply systems depend on surface water sources like rivers and lakes. Chennai, for instance, has to bring in water from a distance of 200 km whereas Bangalore gets its water from the Cauvery river, which is 95 km away. Where surface water sources fail to meet the rising demand, groundwater reserves are being tapped, often to unsustainable levels. Delhi: The nation's capital is perpetually in the grip of a water crisis, more so during the dry season, when the situation gets particularly worse. As the demand-supply gap widens, more groundwater is being exploited. Of the water supplied by the municipality, approximately 11 per cent comes from groundwater reserves and remaining from the Yamuna river. It is, however, difficult to establish the total quantity of groundwater extracted because a large number of tubewells (owned by individuals, industries and bottled water companies) remain unregistered. In Delhi approximately 13 per cent (Source: Zerah. , M Helene, 2000, Water – Unreliable Supply in Delhi, French Research Institute of India) households do not receive water every day and in Rajkot, Gujarat, water availability in April 2000 was only for 30 minutes every alternate day. Rural Water Supply The rural population of India comprises more than 700 million people residing in about 1. 42 million habitations spread over 15 diverse ecological regions. It is true that providing drinking water to such a large population is an enormous challenge. Our country is also characterised by non-uniformity in level of awareness, socio-economic development, education, poverty, practices and rituals which add to the complexity of providing water. Dependence on the state has meant that with the cost of water supply being high and cost recovery being poor, the financial sustainability of water schemes has run aground, and repairs and maintenance is abysmal. With people having no interest in using water carefully, the sustainability of water has itself become questionable. There are serious problems with government drinking water supply schemes. Despite government efforts, the number of ‘problem villages' does not seem to go down, The government has indeed invested heavily on water resources development, which focussed on large-scale irrigation development for increasing green revolution-style agriculture production and drinking water supply programmes. Yet, a large part of the country remains drought-prone. This is because no specific effort has been made to drought-proof rainfed areas which suffer from high rainfall variability from year to year. Role of Government Ministry of Water Resources, Ministry of Urban Development and Poverty Alleviation, Ministry of Rural Development, Ministry of Environment and Forest and Ministry of Health and Family Welfare all have got a different roles to play to provide drinking water of adequate quantity and potable quality to meet the health needs of the community. All of them are involved and play their respective roles to provide quality water and its management. Roles of different agencies are listed below: †¢ Ministry of Water Resources: The Central Ground Water Board is monitoring both quantitative and qualitative data with regard to ground water. Apart from this CGWB has developed ground water maps concerning various qualitative issues. †¢ Ministry of Urban Development and Poverty Alleviation: Working through various Urban Bodies, the Ministry is involved in monitoring drinking water quality in the urban agglomerations. There are quite a few Water Boards especially in Metro Cities who are equipped to take up the job, but not all urban bodies keep watch of the quality of water being provided on regular basis. †¢ Ministry of Rural Development: Department of Drinking Water in the Ministry is working through State public Health Engineering Departments or Water oards are monitoring the drinking water quality in the rural areas of the country. Almost all the districts do have WQ laboratory. Though WQ is generally tested during installation, follow up testing is not done on regular basis. The department in certain places is initiating community involvement for WQ testing including â€Å"Catchments Approach†. †¢ Ministry of Environment and Forests: Working through Central Pollution Control Board, the Ministry is involved in monitoring water quality of main rivers and big water bodies. Most of these water sources are being used for drinking water purposes. So CPCB itself or through State Pollution Control Boards is having a watch on raw water quality. †¢ Ministry of Health: So far the Ministry had been playing a limited role with regard to drinking water surveillance in some selected areas. But with the inclusion of drinking water under food category, MoH will be playing a significant role. Also Indian government enforced National water policy in 2002 and water pollution act( prevention and control) 1975 for maintaining water quantity and quality. CONCLUSIONS It takes the cooperation and the education of everyone to help clean up our biggest drinking water threats. The more environmentally friendly everyone becomes, the closer we get to finding cleaner drinking water and protecting our natural environment. Industrial and personal responsibility for our environment is the first and most significant step toward clean drinking water in the country in every community. According to a 2007 World Health Organization report, 1. 1 billion people lack access to an improved drinking water supply, 88% of the 4 billion annual cases of diarrhea disease are attributed to unsafe water and inadequate sanitation and hygiene, and 1. million people die from diarrheal diseases each year. The WHO estimates that 94% of these diarrheal cases are preventable through modifications to the environment, including access to safe water. Simple techniques for treating water at home, such as chlorination, filters, and solar disinfection, and storing it in safe containers could save a huge number of lives each year. Reducing deaths from waterborne diseases is a major public hea lth goal in developing countries.

Peer Reviews of Opinion Papers Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Peer Reviews of Opinion Papers - Assignment Example This issue comes into discussion a little later. Considering the fact that introduction is supposed to shed brief light about the topic that is going to be discussed in more detail in the body and hence giving the reader a good view of what to expect, this introduction has not fulfilled that instruction and the reader is left to scan through the rest of the body of the written article to have grasp what the discussion is all about. Other than the lack of following the initial instructions about writing an introduction, the little bit discussed in the first part of the paper that is supposedly the introduction though vague and maybe ambiguous to some extent shed in little light about the expectations of the paper and the position the writer has taken. The writer has tried to give the rationale of the topic in discussion. More rationale should however have been provided to really convince the reader that the issue under discussion is a problem that needs to be addressed. The rationale though good as it is lacks enough justifications through evidences from researches or literature review and hence seems vague enough. After having a bit of trouble with the introduction section, the writer has done a good and commendable job on the body part of the discussion. Integration of references in the discussion which are supporting literature of the discussion has been integrated. With the references indicated, it is evident that the writer did an extensive literature review of the topic under discussion and hence came up with exemplary material enough to support the earlier stipulated position of the issue and to even convince the reader that it is the best position to take. The references also show differences in positions of various scholars from time immemorial until now and the changes in ideologies and beliefs and which is what makes the writer make a stand in supporting the issue

Elder Interview Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Elder Interview - Essay Example Digoxin helps the heart to beat more effectively; ? tab is taken daily. Lasix is taken orally 3 times daily as a diuretic which resolves water retention due to CHF. Singulair is a bronchodilator taken orally once daily. Warfarin is an anti-coagulant (a blood thinner) for reducing risk of cardiac events; the patient takes 2 tabs orally every evening. Diltiazem is an anti-arrythmic taken orally, twice a day in caplet form. Albuterol is a bronchodilator; the patient must take 2 puffs every four to six hours. Advair, an anti-asthmatic, is inhaled in one puff twice a day. Mesalamine is to treat inflammatory bowel disease; the patient takes 2 tabs orally twice a day. The patient also takes Pravastatin, which is a pipid-lowering agent for heart disease; the patient takes two tabs daily. Fluticasone is an anti-asthmatic; the patient should take 1 to 2 sprays in each nostril daily. Potassium chloride is taken by the patient as an electrolyte replacement; she takes this orally twice daily. Vit amin D is for prevention of vitamin deficiency; it is taken once or twice monthly. Hydrocodone is an opioid analgesic taken for pain management; 2 tabs are taken orally by the patient every 8 hours for pain. Nortryptiline is a tricyclic anti-depressant; 4 caplets are taken at bedtime, not to exceed 5 caps total. 2. What reminders does he/she use to remember to take the med? (14) The patient sets an alarm so she will know when to take her medications. 2a. Are these reminders effective? (10) These reminders appear to be very effective for the patient. 3. Any noted side effects experienced? (12) The side effects the patient experiences are some fatigue and occasional dizziness. 4. Is his/her physician aware of OTC or herbs that are taken? (15) The patient’s physician is aware of any over-the-counter or herbal medicines that are taken. ? 5. Any hospital admissions due to an adverse reaction, mishandling, or overdose? (14) There were no hospital admissions due to an adverse reacti on, mishandling, or overdose. ? 6. From whom or where does your client receive information regarding meds? (9) My client receives information regarding medications from her doctor. After the interview, refer to a drug reference text and answer the following questions: ?(10 points) PART II. ? 1. Does your client understand the reasons for taking the meds? (59) Yes, the patient notices right away when she doesn’t take her diuretic, because her hands and feet get swollen. She knows when it’s time for her pain medication, the Hydrocodone—and she knows because she begins to have pain. She knows that, if she doesn’t take her Advair and Singulair, she’s not going to be able to breathe right. 2. Does your client understand the â€Å"common† side effects, including the OTCs and herbs? Give examples. (39) The patient understands many of the common side effects that go along with the over-the-counter medications as well as her prescribed medications. F or example, she tries to plan taking most of her sedative medications before she goes to bed. 3. Is your client at risk for an adverse reaction? Why? (19) This particular client is at risk for adverse reactions because she is allergic to shellfish, as well as aspirin. 4. How does the number of meds taken by your client compare to the number of meds taken by your hospitalized clients? Does your hospitalized client have a better understanding of his/her meds as compared to your community dwelling client? (85) The number of medications taken by my patient is a lot compared to the

No topic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 28

No topic - Essay Example It is more difficult for men to adjust to female gender roles because most of them are raised in the masculine mindset of supremacy over women. Female gender roles are to them demeaning because that was never the gender role that they were trained for. However, even if men fail in their attempt to fill in the female gender role in a society, they will not be looked down upon by others because they will simply chalk it up to gender assigned training. Just look at the way that men and women are treated in the office. As a successful career woman, she is held back by the idea that women are family oriented first, career oriented second. A woman is expected to continue to care for her family and juggle her career at the same time. Those in higher positions at the office feel that a man is best for most jobs because women tend to â€Å"take leave when the kid gets the flu.†, leaving her work office duties hanging. They fail to take into account that women are the best time managers available and that the job will always get done provided they are given a chance to prove